Toh – the report of a gun

This past fall, from October 28 through November 5, many Choctaw hunters engaged in a style of hunting that dates back to over 300 years ago. Muzzleloader season is a time when Choctaw hunters had the opportunity to hunt deer, elk and black bear with black powder weapons. Last year, according to the Choctaw Nation 2022-2023 Big Game Harvest Report, Choctaw muzzleloader hunters checked 288 deer accounted—the total number of deer harvested by Choctaw hunters with all types of weapons combined was 2,444. Muzzleloaders equated to roughly 12% of the total number of deer harvested by Choctaw hunters in the reservation.

Choctaw people have been using black powder weapons continuously since the beginning of the 18th century. However, our ancestors first encountered black powder weapons as far back as the 16th century in the hands of Spanish conquistadors. Spanish colonizers like Cabeza de Vaca and Hernando de Soto brought matchlock muskets, also known as arquebus, as they invaded our homelands. In the late 17th century, Choctaw people once again encountered black powder weapons in the hands of Chickasaw and Muscogee warriors. Choctaw warriors may have acquired a few rifles from skirmishes against these neighbors. However, it wasn’t until the arrival of the French in 1699 that Choctaws had limited access to flintlock muskets.

Before 1763, Choctaw Chiefs controlled the flow of European-manufactured goods, including flintlock muskets, into their villages (O’Brien 2005: 47). This practice allowed Chiefs to ensure that goods were evenly distributed amongst their community. During this period, it was common for a Choctaw village to only have five to seven muskets (Swanton 1931:50). These muskets were held by the Chief and issued to warriors and hunters when needed. Beginning sometime after the French settlement of Mobile, Choctaw leaders attended annual meetings with the French leaders in Mobile. During these meetings, the Chiefs would be granted gifts. These gifts were effectively a lease that was paid to Choctaw leaders by the French for their use of our lands along the Gulf Coast. Outside of these gifts, the French traded a very limited number of guns and ammunition to Choctaw Chiefs except when the Chiefs agreed to fight against the Chickasaw, who were enemies of the French (Swanton 1931:50).

After the end of the Seven Years’ War in 1763, France transferred control of its holdings to the British. British traders did not exclusively trade with Choctaw Chiefs, disrupting the distribution of goods into Choctaw communities. Choctaw men now had access to British muskets (O’Brien 2005: 48). As the autonomy of young men increased, so did overhunting within the Choctaw Nation. Some men sought war as a way to gain access to goods. Leading war parties against enemies of the British resulted in the reward of more British muskets (ibid). There is an account of an influential Choctaw Chief named Franchimastabe, who signed an agreement in 1777 with the British to allow them access to Choctaw lands along the Mississippi River in exchange for 800 guns (O’Brien 2005: 49).

The French had two types of smoothbore trade guns that were given or traded to Choctaws and other Tribal Nations in North America: the fusil de traite (trade gun) and the fusil de chasse (hunting gun) (Hamilton 1987:31). Choctaw people referred to the fusil de traite as Tanampo (gun) and the fusil de chasse as Tanampo Fabvssa (long and slender gun) (Byington 1909: 341). The fusil de traite was the cheaper version of trade gun. The fusil de chasse was a more expensive version meant for hunting and could fire both a roundball and buckshot. The flexibility to fire either type of round made it extremely popular among Southeastern Tribes for hunting small or large game and could be used in warfare (Christopher Jones, personal communication). The British had their own smoothbore trade guns and hunting guns that they traded with Choctaws. The names for these are the same as above.

The following description covers the process of loading and firing a flintlock musket. It includes terms found in the 1915 Dictionary of the Choctaw Language by Cyrus Byington. Many of these words are not commonly used by today’s Choctaw speakers, and their meanings come from a time when Choctaw people interpreted the world differently than we do today. Readers will see the words that are used metaphorically to express men’s role associated with hunting and warfare. The following terms can help us understand how our ancestors interacted and explained the world they lived in.

To use a flintlock musket, a Choctaw man would have to go through a series of steps to load and then fire the weapon.

1. 1. The first step is to load hituk (powder) or gunpowder down the tanampo nihi (gun seed) or barrel of the musket. This is followed by loading the naki lumbo (round bullet) or roundball; this process is known as tanamp abehli (puts in the gun). Early on, gunpowder was poured directly from the hituk aivlhto (powder box) or powder flask, using your eye to measure the appropriate amount of powder. Measuring powder by eye can be extremely dangerous if too much powder is loaded, causing the musket to explode when fired. Overcharging gunpowder is known as atablit abehli (overload). Soon, a device called a hituk isht vlhpisa (measures the powder) or powder measure came to be used that measured out the appropriate amount of powder needed to fire the roundball.
   2. The second step is naki a latasvlli (flatten the bullet) or to tamp down the powder and roundball using a tanampo isht kashokvchi (rammer) or ramrod.
   3. The third step is cheli (priming a gun). This is done by raising the frizzen and inserting powder onto the tanampo haksun aionchiya (gun priming pan) or gun priming pan. The powder used to prime the gun is a finer powder called hituk haksun onchiya (priming powder lying on the priming pan) which had its own powder flask. Once the pan is primed, the frizzen is placed back down over the pan to protect the priming powder.
   4. The fourth step is hilechi (to cock a gun) or arming the gun. This is done by pulling back the tanampo luksi fulup (turtle upper arm of the gun) or the cock. The cock holds a piece of flint that is used to strike a piece of steel, called the frizzen, which then ignites the priming powder lying in the pan. The Byington Dictionary does not have a Choctaw word for gunflint. However, the general term in the Choctaw language for flint is tasvnnuk. The Byington Dictionary also does not have a word for the frizzen; however, the term for the steel used to strike fire from flint is tvli luak (striking fire from steel). Hussa (to shoot) is a general word for firing a weapon. However, tukafa (to fire a gun) is the specific word for discharging a gun. Someone who shoots a gun is called takvffi and someone shot by a gun is ontukafa. When the tanampo ahalvlli (gun trigger) is pulled, the cock snaps forward and the flint strikes the frizzen causing a spark. The noise made by the snapping of the cock is chahlak. The force of the cock and flint striking the frizzen causes the frizzen to spring up and allow the spark to ignite the priming powder in the pan; the ignition of the powder in the pan is called shubbukli or the powder flash. The spark travels through the tanampo haksun chiluk (hole in the gun’s touch pan) or the touchhole. The spark travels through the touchhole into the barrel and ignites the powder behind the roundball. When the powder in the barrel ignites, it shoots the roundball out at a high velocity. The name for the gunshot is ahussa achvfa (one shot) and the sound of the gunshot is toh.

Opi is the word for holding the gun and hvnnaweli is used to describe carrying a gun on your back using a sling that comes across over the chest and under one arm. A person who loads a gun is nan apitta (something to put in) and a gunsmith is tanampo ikbi (gun maker). The bullet mold used to make the roundball is nakahakmo or nakaiakmo (the place where the bullet hardens).

Choctaw society has changed much in some ways since the 17th and 18th centuries. Some traditions were put to sleep and some traditions continue to live on vibrantly within Choctaw communities today. The Choctaw Nation 2022-2023 Big Game Harvest Report stated that 53% of deer hunters last year were hunters aged 30 or under. While national averages show a decrease in young hunters, the Choctaw Harvest report stated, “There is fear that hunting traditions are not being passed down as they were in the past. That does not seem to be the case in the CNO. Strong youth numbers are a testament to culture ties and significance that hunting has in the CNO”. Meanwhile, the Choctaw society of the past placed specific emphasis on the roles of men and women. Today, our culture has adapted to where all Choctaw people can participate in activities of their choosing. The report stated that of deer hunting in the Choctaw Nation, 34% were from female hunters. This exceeds the national average of 10 – 25% of female hunters. As in the past, Choctaw people continue to play a role in the stewardship of our lands.